As the sun rises over Cappadocia, hot air balloons drift above its surreal landscape, dotted with valleys and fairy chimneys carved into the volcanic rock over thousands of years by the forces of nature. But it’s underneath this arid land that a marvel twists and turns to form an elaborate network of hidden cities.
In these subterranean settlements, some spanning entire villages, there are storerooms, barns, schools, and churches measuring up to 400 square metres. They were abandoned long ago.
So why did the ancient inhabitants of Cappadocia retreat underground? Historians and archaeologists have long debated this question and struggled to demystify the origin story of these dwellings, interspersed with myths and legends.
Some theories suggest that locals built these underground cities to escape cataclysmic natural events dating back to the last Ice Age and they lived there for centuries without surfacing. There are more outlandish ideas, like aliens coming down to build them.
However, it is only when one delves into these dimly lit subterranean hallways that the true depth of Cappadocia’s history and culture emerges.
A land of secrets
“There’s still a lot of uncertainty surrounding these cities, despite their long history,” says Dr Veronica Kalas, a historian and archaeologist who has extensively researched the region.
According to the Obruk Cave Research Group, which works alongside local authorities to map these subterranean structures, a total of 257 underground settlements have been discovered in Cappadocia. Many more are yet to be excavated, especially around the Nevsehir province.
Ali Yamac, a speleologist with Obruk, notes that these dwellings likely began as family-specific shelters before morphing into expansive cities.
Despite their vast scale, these underground cities remained largely unknown until the past few decades. Derinkuyu, the largest known underground city in the world, was discovered by accident in 1963 when a villager was renovating his home in Nevsehir.
Named after its 55-metre deep well, Derinkuyu is a colossal city built 85 metres beneath the ground and boasts 13 levels, though only eight have been excavated to date.
It could have housed up to 20,000 people and even included a cemetery. Other subterranean settlements connected to Derinkuyu through cramped tunnels spanning several kilometres.
Over the centuries, different civilisations—including the Hattians, Hittites, Phrygians, and later Christians fleeing Roman persecution—sought refuge in these cities.
Defence and survival
The claustrophobic spaces and narrow corridors of Cappadocia’s subterranean cities suggest they were designed for defence.
Invaders would have been slowed down in the passages or blocked entirely by stone doors weighing up to a tonne, which could be rolled into place to seal off entrances. Aboveground, these doors blended seamlessly with the surrounding landscape, effectively camouflaging the way in.
Authorities suggest that the origins of these settlements date as far back as the Early Bronze Age, around 2,000 BCE, to the earliest known inhabitants of Anatolia: the Hattians. However, the first substantial evidence points to the Hittite civilisation, which superseded the Hattians in Cappadocia around 1,700 BCE.
Historians believe the Hattians retreated underground to seek refuge from the Hittites, much like the Hittites may have later fled from the Phrygians, who, in turn, sought sanctuary from the Assyrians. It’s also believed that these underground havens were used by Christians during the Roman Empire to escape persecution before Christianity was officially recognised.
The Byzantines eventually settled in these cities, likely using them as a retreat from Arab conquerors during the 7th and 8th centuries. “The best dates we have are from the Byzantine period because of the church paintings,” notes Kalas, emphasising that dedicatory inscriptions provide the most reliable dating for the cities’ use.
The continuous occupation of these spaces over millennia complicates efforts to determine their original builders, as successive civilisations likely erased traces of earlier inhabitants.
The underground settlements also provided insulation from Cappadocia’s extreme climate. The porous volcanic rock, or tuff, maintained stable temperatures year-round, offering a cool respite during scorching summers and warmth during harsh winters, with the added benefit of being free from unpleasant odours.
“These structures were probably used throughout the year, though their function likely varied depending on the season and the needs of the occupants,” Kalas explains, noting that the underground cities served multiple purposes.
The allure of myths
In recent years, some people have made documentaries and written articles fueling all sorts of theories including that the inhabitants of these underground cities were trying to seek protection from a “fatal winter” during the last Ice Age and that they did not surface for hundreds of years.
Yet, despite the allure of myths that challenge established history, there is no credible reason to believe these cities date back to the Younger Dryas, more than 7,000 years before the Hattians inhabited Cappadocia.
“It’s a fantastical place that can easily inspire the imagination, much like the pyramids in Egypt,” Kalas tells TRT World, addressing claims that aliens built the pyramids—a notion arising from disbelief that ancient civilisations could achieve such architectural feats. “It’s mind-boggling, but it happened. There’s no need to invent stories about aliens or cataclysmic events,” she adds.
Though these cities were fully equipped with wells and ventilation shafts that allowed fresh air to circulate several floors deep, it’s unclear how long people could remain underground. One certainty is that a presence on the surface was essential for their survival.
“There were still crops being cultivated and animals being raised or grazed aboveground,” Kalas explains.
Yamac adds, “As someone who has crawled through these tunnels and cities, I can tell you that staying underground for extended periods wouldn’t be feasible. We need to separate science fiction from reality.”
He stressed that locals could likely shelter underground for weeks at a time, but they would eventually need to surface to replenish their resources.
As bleak and uncomfortable as life in Cappadocia’s claustrophobic subterranean cities may seem, it was likely better than we imagine.
“There are myths that these spaces were primitive. But if you added beds, whitewashed the walls, and lit candles, I don’t think it would have been an unpleasant place to live,” says Dr Kalas, adding that such settlements were “probably more common in the ancient and medieval worlds than we assume today.”
Even now, many people in Cappadocia continue to live in carved structures.
Not just surviving, but thriving
The architects of Cappadocia’s underground fortresses demonstrated extraordinary levels of craftsmanship, especially considering the technological limitations of their era.
Working with the unique challenges of carving intricate plans from the top down, rather than from the ground up, they quarried stone with precision. Kalas highlights the presence of master masons, who, over centuries, had honed their skills in working the rock.
These masons likely drew on knowledge passed down through generations, displaying not only expertise in stonework but also a deep understanding of architectural design. Kalas notes examples of carved churches featuring domes, columns, and apses from the middle Byzantine period that mimic the appearance of traditional built structures.
“This wasn’t just about surviving—it was about thriving,” Dr Kalas tells TRT World, emphasising that their work is a testament to the brilliance that can arise when humans live in harmony with their environment.
The architectural and engineering achievements above and below Cappadocia remain unparalleled, offering timeless insights into the resilience and ingenuity of humankind.
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